PUBLIC
EXPENDITURE
ON SUPPLY
REDUCTION
POLICIES
PREMS 062717
Authors:
Anne Line Bretteville-Jensen
Claudia Costa Storti
Thomas Kattau
Sania Mikulic
Fatima Trigueiros
Fivos Papamalis
Laura Piscociu
Sergey Tsarev
PUBLIC
EXPENDITURE
ON SUPPLY
REDUCTION
POLICIES
Authors:
Anne Line Bretteville-Jensen
Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo
Claudia Costa Storti
EMCDDA
Thomas Kattau
Pompidou Group
Sania Mikulic
Office for combating drugs abuse Government
of the Republic of Croatia, Zagreb
Fatima Trigueiros
General Directorate for Interventions on Addictive
Behaviours and Dependencies, Lisbon
Fivos Papamalis
Advisor to the Greek National Drug Coordinator, Athens
Laura Piscociu
Romanian National Anti-Drug Agency, Bucharest
Sergey Tsarev
State Medical Institution
“Chapaevsk Narkology Hospital”, Samara
Council of Europe
The opinions expressed in this work are the responsibility
of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official
policy of the Council of Europe or the Pompidou Group.
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be addressed to the Directorate of Communication
(F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex or xxxxxxxxxx@xxx.xxx).
All other correspondence concerning this document
should be addressed to the Pompidou Group.
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Contents
FOREWORD 5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7
INTRODUCTION 8
DEFINING CONCEPTS
10
Public expenditure
10
Drug-related public expenditure
10
Public expenditure on supply reduction initiatives
10
EMPIRICAL ESTIMATES OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY POLICY EXPENDITURE
11
STEPS IN COST ESTIMATION AND ANALYSIS
12
Defining the scope and objects
12
Making an inventory of service providers
12
Mapping financing entities
12
Data collection
12
Classifying and identifying data on drug-related spending
13
Extracting expenditure data from sources: labelled and unlabelled expenditure
13
Reporting the value of estimates
15
EXAMPLES OF SECTORIAL MODELS
16
Police 16
Customs 16
Court systems
17
Prisons 17
EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL STUDIES
18
Croatia 18
Belgium 18
Italy 18
France 19
Luxembourg 19
Russia 19
Portugal 19
Other national studies
19
INTERNATIONAL DATABASES USED TO MODEL DRUG-RELATED PUBLIC EXPENDITURE
20
CONCLUSIONS 21
RECOMMENDATIONS 22
GLOSSARY
23
REFERENCES
25
APPENDIX 1 – AVAILABLE DATABASES AND POTENTIAL INDICATORS FOR DRUG-RELATED PUBLIC
EXPENDITURES
27
APPENDIX 2 – THE INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT (COFOG)
30
APPENDIX 3 – SUMMARY TABLES: DATA FROM INTERNATIONAL DATABASES
31
ACRONYMS 36
TABLE REFERENCES
36
► Page
3
Foreword
A confirmed political will to address the drugs are available for European countries. To facilitate and
problem in Europe lies not only in the develop-
promote future empirical expenditure studies, relevant
ment of appropriate policies, but in the amount
data sources and methodologies applied in empirical
of public funds assigned to implement cost effective
estimations are listed and discussed.
policies. Currently, however, analysing what these
This publication brings together the findings of wider
funds are is still difficult. Information and data are
study conducted by the Pompidou Group in cooper-
still sparse and national estimates tend to neither use
ation with the EMCDDA seeking to identify the unin-
comparable definitions nor agreed methodologies.
tended effects and associated costs of drug control
Supply reduction is an approach used for addressing
policies. The aim of this publication is threefold. First,
the illicit drug phenomena. It comprises the whole
increase international awareness about the impor-
system of laws, regulatory measures, courses of action
tance of estimating public expenditure on supply
and funding priorities intended to reduce the avail-
reduction initiatives. Second, stress the importance
ability of illegal drugs. The EU Drugs Strategy (2013-
of harmonizing definitions and increasing availability,
2020) sets the dissemination of the evaluation of
comparability and reliability of data as well as methods
interventions results as a priority. Providing sound
for sound estimates. Third, contribute to developing
methods to estimate drug-related public expenditure
sound estimation practices to obtain accurate, com-
is an important step in this direction. Such estimates
plete and reliable drug policy evaluations.
aim to calculate the amount of resources spent on
Promoting international cooperation and develop-
implementing targeted interventions and may reveal
ing of effective working partnerships between drug
the extent to which policy intentions are reflected in
international organizations, policy makers, specialists
relevant budgets.
in accountancy, law enforcement agents and those
This publication is a first step towards a systematic
in charge of economic modelling is the way forward.
analysis. It examines a set of recent and representative
While recognising the limitations imposed by currently
attempts to estimate public expenditure on supply
available data sets, this publication sheds light on
reduction policies. Consequently, it proposes a com-
current practice and, in doing so, suggests areas of
mon set of definitions aiming to establish a common
focus for future desired methodological development.
basis for understanding such complex subject matter
In this way it hopes that the estimation of drug-related
and to facilitate comparability in three main dimen-
public expenditure and policy evaluation will move
sions: time, policy and countries. Although the study
forward, in Europe. For continuous improvements to
is mainly focused in supply reduction expenditures,
take place, however, it is essential that partnerships are
it reports data on the balance between spending on
extended and maintained with the goal of developing
demand and on supply reduction, when estimates
good practices, standards and guidelines in this field.
Jan Malinowski
Alexis Goosdeel
Executive Secretary of the Pompidou Group
Director of the EMCDDA
► Page
5
Executive summary
Supply reduction has been normally used for This report takes a first step towards a systematic
addressing the illicit drug phenomena in Europe.
analysis, by examining a set of representative attempts
It uses the whole system of laws, regulatory mea-
to estimate public expenditure on supply reduction
sures, courses of action and funding priorities used
interventions. It proposes a common set of defini-
by governments and their representatives.
tions, aiming to establish a common basis for under-
Evaluating drug policy is an integral part of a cost-ef-
standing this topic and facilitating comparability in
ficient approach to tackle illicit drugs. Assessing and
three main dimensions: time, policy and countries.
estimating drug-related public expenditure is a first
Although it is mainly confined to supply reduction
step in evaluations exercises. Estimates aim to cal-
expenditures, in order to set the context, it describes
culate the amount of resources spent, or needed, to
the proportion that total drug-related expenditure
implement these targeted interventions. Therefore,
represents of national public spending and; presents
estimates may reveal to what extent policy intentions
the balance between demand and supply reduction
are reflected in relevant budgets, if considered that
spending for a number of European countries. With
the size of the phenomena and resources available
the aim of facilitating and promoting future empirical
condition choices.
expenditure studies and of setting the ground for the
development of good practices, relevant data sources
Until now, estimates for the funds spent by govern-
and methodologies applied are listed and discussed
ments in this field are sparse. They have been mostly
and examples of sectorial models of public spending
produced at national level and applied different defi-
are selectively provided. Finally, some conclusions and
nitions, with no commonly agreed methodologies or
recommendations are offered.
comparable datasets. Uncertainty about the most
appropriate economic models to use also exists. These
factors have constituted effective barriers to rapid
developments of policy evaluation and cost-effective
analysis in the field.
► Page
6
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the EMCDDA and the Pompidou Group Secretariat for the support ren-
dered in the preparation of this publication. In addition gratitude is expressed to the following experts
who contributed to the content of this publication in the context of their work in the Pompidou Group’s
expert group on effects and associated costs of drug control policies:
Peyman Altan
Turkish Public Health Institution, Ankara, Turkey
Pavel Bem
Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
Torbjørn Brekke
Senior Adviser, Ministry of Health and Care Services, Norway
Yossi Harel-Fisch
Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
Elena Hedoux
Pompidou Group, Council of Europe
Janusz Sieroslawski
Institute of Psychiatry & Neurology, Warsaw
► Page
7
Introduction
The aim of this publication is threefold. Firstly, to the whole system of laws, regulatory measures, courses
increase international awareness concerning the
of action and funding priorities concerning illicit drugs
importance of estimating public expenditure on
put into effect by a government or its representatives
supply reduction initiatives. Secondly, to raise public
(law enforcement officers such as police and customs
awareness of the need to agree upon harmonising
officers, judges, prison guards, etc.). Reduced drug
definitions and increasing the availability, compa-
availability and accessibility is achieved through a
rability and reliability of data, as well as methods for
disruption of illicit drug trafficking; dismantling of
producing sound estimates. And thirdly, to contribute
the criminal organisations that are involved in drug
to developing national and international estimation
production and trafficking; efficient use of the criminal
practices with a view to obtaining accurate, complete,
justice system; effective intelligence-led law enforce-
reliable and comparable drug policy evaluations.
ment and increased intelligence sharing; and a focus
The target audience includes officials involved in the
on large-scale, cross-border and organised drug-re-
evaluation of drug policy; entities wishing to evaluate
lated crime (EMCDDA, 2016)
.
drug policy priorities, develop drug policy strategies
and action plans and analyse their economic, social
As stated in documents such as the 2013-2020
and political consequences; accounting authorities;
European Union Drug Strategy (Council of the
entities seeking funds to finance their service provi-
European Union, 2013) and the EU Action Plan on
sion; and researchers.
Drugs 2013-2016 (Official Journal of the European
Union, 2013), an evaluation of drug policy is an inte-
Most European countries have a national drug policy
gral part of the approach to combating illicit drugs.
presented in a drug strategy document (EMCDDA,
Estimation of drug-related public expenditure can be
2015). National drug strategies tend to reflect a bal-
seen as a first step in this direction. Public expenditure
anced approach between drug demand and drug
estimates aim to calculate the amount of resources
supply reduction (EMCDDA, 2016). An optimal balance,
spent, or needed, to implement targeted interventions
however, may not imply that the two approaches
in a particular policy field and may reveal to what
receive an equal share of resources and attention.
extent policy intentions are reflected in the relevant
Instead, it will depend on country specific priorities
budgets and are conditioned by the size and charac-
and aims for the different drug policy sectors, as well
teristics of the drug phenomenon.
as on the relative price of implementing each activity
in a cost-effective manner.
Accurate estimates of public spending on implement-
Supply reduction is often the main approach used
ing drug policy initiatives will help policymakers to
for addressing the illicit drug problem. Nonetheless,
plan relevant interventions and make the required
efforts aimed at reducing demand (mainly prevention
funds available to the authorities in charge of policy
and treatment measures) are also important and
implementation. A thorough assessment of drug
harm reduction initiatives have gained in significance
policy expenditures will also contribute to improved
over the years. In addition, the effects of supply and
transparency and accountability of public institutions.
demand reduction efforts are often interrelated. For
Estimates may provide information on factors such
instance, successfully reducing drug availability may
as the relative importance of demand and supply
influence the consumption of drugs and also have an
expenditures and enable cross-country comparisons
impact on problem drug use and adverse drug use
of the level and composition of spending on the fight
consequences.
against illicit drugs (EMCDDA, 2008). Sound planning,
improved knowledge of the resources allocated to this
The overarching objective of supply reduction is a
policy field, and cost-effective resource allocation are
measurable reduction in the availability and accessibil-
particularly necessary in times of economic downturn
ity to illicit drugs. Supply reduction initiatives comprise
when fewer resources are available.
► Page
8
A subsequent step would be to systematically compare
useful and desirable. This report takes the first step
public expenditure and other possible costs to the pol-
towards a systematic analysis by examining a num-
icy’s measured outputs or results. Depending on how
ber of representative attempts to estimate public
the results are defined and measured, a cost-benefit or
expenditure on supply reduction policies. It proposes
cost-effectiveness analysis can be conducted (see glos-
a common set of definitions to be used for public
sary). In this case, resource inputs (the costs of labour,
expenditure assessment and evaluation. In addition,
capital and/or equipment) are linked to intermediate
it aims to establish a common basis for understanding
outcomes (e.g. number of drug dealers arrested); final
this complex subject and to facilitate comparabil-
outputs (e.g. lives saved, life years gained, number of
ity in three main areas: time, policy and countries
drug users, reduction in drug-related harm, percent-
concerned. Although, the report mainly focuses on
age reduction in crimes committed); or policy goals.
supply reduction expenditures, in order to contex-
Irrespective of the chosen output measures, however,
tualise them, it describes the proportion that total
public expenditure will be a central cost factor, since
drug-related expenditure represents of gross domestic
governments constitute the main provider of drug
product. It also shows how spending is balanced
supply reduction services in Europe.
between demand and supply reduction initiatives
A thorough economic evaluation can provide pol-
in a number of European countries. To facilitate and
icymakers with the information required to make
promote future empirical expenditure studies, the
well-informed decisions. Although the data and a
relevant data sources and methodologies applied in
quantification of all the outcomes and cost elements
making empirical estimates are listed and discussed.
required for conducting the most comprehensive
Examples of sectorial models of public spending and
analyses are currently not available, a somewhat less
examples of national supply reduction expenditure
extensive analysis and an improved understanding
studies are also provided. Finally, some conclusions
of the individual elements involved are still possible,
and recommendations are offered.
Introduction ► Page
9
Defining concepts
Public expenditure
government documents or single budget lines;
these are labelled expenditure. The required data
The term «public expenditure» refers to the value of
are instead embedded in budgets for larger sectors
goods and services purchased by general govern-
or programmes (unlabelled expenditure), which
ments (at central, regional and local level) in order to
means that modelling and calculations are needed.
perform its functions. For instance, it refers to resources
For instance, it is common that prisons do not have a
spent on healthcare, justice, public order and safety,
separate budget for drug-law offenders, because they
education, social protection and so on (Eurostat, 2011),
usually have one single budget for their entire activity.
and its quantification is a costing exercise undertaken
Therefore, the values of this embedded expenditure
from the government’s perspective (EMCDDA, 2008).
can only be estimated through modelling approaches
The role of private expenditure in drug policy varies
(EMCDDA, 2014). This requires skills, modelling tools
across countries, timescales and policy areas. In many
and techniques.
countries, drug treatment is partly financed by the
private sector (insurance companies, drug users or
Despite the various factors which may challenge the
their employers, relatives, etc.). In other drug policy
robustness of estimation results (limited data availabil-
areas, such as supply reduction, private funding usu-
ity, layering of assumptions, changes in definitions or
ally constitutes a negligible share of total spending
regulations over time, etc.), the application of existing
(European Commission, 2012).
models can provide useful insights, as various coun-
tries’ experience shows (see the examples below).
Drug-related public expenditure
Drug-related public expenditure is the sum spent by
Public expenditure on supply
governments on goods and services with the aim
reduction initiatives
of tackling the illegal drug phenomenon. Although
drug policy expenditure estimates are deemed useful,
In this report, public expenditure on drug supply
most countries do not produce separate drug-related
reduction comprises the funds spent by general gov-
budgets as part of their ordinary budgeting exercise.
ernment with the broad purpose of reducing the
Relevant analyses and estimations can be complicated
availability with the support of the police, law courts
since several inter-ministerial and cross-governmental
and prison services geared towards combating the
sectors are involved in drug control programmes,
illegal drug phenomenon, as defined by Eurostat
including justice, policing and border control, prisons,
(2011). In general, police services comprise, among
social protection, education and health. Disentangling
others, the regular and auxiliary policing of ports
drug policy expenditure across government depart-
and borders, coast guards and customs, as well as
ments and inter-sectorial policies remains a significant
road traffic regulations and supervision. The services
challenge. Changes in legislation and the structure of
provided by law courts comprise the operation or
public administration can further hamper compara-
support of civil and criminal law courts and judicial
bility over time.
systems, the prosecution service, fine enforcement
An additional challenge lies in the fact that drug-re-
and probation systems. Prison services comprise the
lated programmes and activities can be found at many
activities of prison administration and the operation or
different levels of public administration. For instance,
support of prisons and other places for the detention
the funding for imprisoning drug-law offenders is usu-
or rehabilitation of offenders, such as prison farms,
ally provided by central government, while prevention
workhouses, reformatories, borstals, forensic wards,
of street dealing or social reintegration programmes
etc. (Eurostat, 2011).
for former drug dealers are frequently financed by
local authorities. This makes it necessary to compile
In the case of public expenditure on drug supply
data at different administrative levels, which can be
reduction initiatives, the vast majority of resources
a demanding task.
will be spent on enforcement targeting producers and
dealers, but may also include legal action targeting
In addition, often only a small fraction of drug- related
users for drug possession when required by national
public expenditure can be traced back directly to
judicial systems.
► Page
10
Empirical estimates of demand
and supply policy expenditure
Over the last decade at least 16 European coun- Interestingly, however, the information available sug-
tries have provided comprehensive estimates
gests that supply reduction activities accounted for
of drug-related public expenditure (EMCDDA,
the largest share of drug-related public expenditure
2014b). Country estimates suggest that drug-related
in most countries. Of the 16 countries which pro-
expenditure ranged from 0.01% to 0.5% of gross
duced complete estimates in the last decade, only
domestic product (GDP). Since the studies may not
four countries spent less than 50% of their total drug
have applied the same expenditure classifications
budget on supply reduction, while five countries spent
or the same estimation methods, caution is required
70% or more. The other countries spent between
when making cross-country comparisons (EMCDDA,
50% and 70% of their drug-related expenditure on
2014b).
supply reduction.
Figure 1 Breakdown of drug-related expenditure between demand and supply reduction.
Source: EMCDDA, 2014b
Analysis has also shown that funds allocated to
classified under health and social protection, this
drug-related initiatives account for only a small pro-
may further suggest that European countries give
portion of the overall public expenditure on the public
higher political priority to supply reduction initiatives,
order and safety sector. For instance, in 2008 (the only
as part of public order and safety activities, than to
year this exercise was systematically conducted in
demand reduction initiatives as part of overall public
European Union countries), supply reduction expendi-
health activities (EMCDDA, 2008). Annually, EMCDDA
ture represented between 2% and 12% of total public
reports the most recent estimates available for national
expenditure in this sector. This proportion compares
drug-related public expenditure in percentage of
to the proportion of drug-related spending on the
the gross domestic product (GDP), in the European
health and social protection sectors. The proportion
Union countries, Norway and Turkey. When available,
of drug-related expenditure on these items accounted
EMCDDA reports also the proportion of funds spent
for less than 1% of total public spending on health
on supply reduction initiatives (http://www.emcdda.
and social protection during that period. Since most
europa.eu/countries).
public spending on demand reduction initiatives is
► Page
11
Steps in cost estimation
and analysis
Clarifying definitions, improving estimation services are not always obvious and easy to identify.
methods, agreeing on best practices and find-
For instance, when drug treatment services are pro-
ing reliable, standardised data will enhance the
vided within prisons, the entity in charge has public
utility of public expenditure estimates, as analysis
order and safety as its first function but health as its
over time and across policy areas and countries can
“real” goal. Therefore, analysts must consider whether
be improved(Single, 2009). Better quality data and
to include the costs of these activities as supply reduc-
further methodological developments are needed. To
tion or demand reduction initiatives. Eurostat, along
this end, we list below some recommended, general
with most international organisations concerned with
methodological steps in cost estimation and analysis.
policy evaluation, includes the provision of services
in the main function that the funds are used for, even
Defining the scope and objects
where the provider is less obvious. In this case, public
expenditure on drug treatment provided in prisons
Globally speaking, a first step for a viable estimate is
should be excluded from expenditure estimates for
defining the scope and type of public expenditure
supply reduction services and accounted for as drug-
considered. In addition, clear indications of the geo-
related health expenditure. Sometimes, provision will
graphical area and which function of public service
be the responsibility of private entities while financing
provision the estimates cover are needed.
is a government responsibility.
It should be noted, however, that the same service
Making an inventory
may have multiple policy purposes and double count-
of service providers
ing should be avoided. For instance, in the case of
social reintegration programmes in deprived neigh-
Secondly, it is necessary to identify the public entity
bourhoods, financing may serve both the purpose
or institutions responsible for the provision of drug-
of preventing drug crime (and should be added to
related services – in the case of this report supply
supply reduction expenditure) and the purpose of
reduction measures and interventions. The govern-
preventing drug use (and should also be accounted
ment authorities and public institutions and services
for as health spending in demand reduction expendi-
responsible for the implementation of the drug policy
ture). For public accounting purposes the same funds
initiatives, on the different competency levels, have
should not be counted twice. Therefore, researchers
to be made an inventory.
will have to include this spending only once, choosing
to record it under either preventive health or crime
prevention. Sometimes, making a decision is difficult
Mapping financing entities
and the best way to deal with such situations is to
guarantee that researchers document the different
The third step is then to identify who finances these
choices and assumptions they make.
service providers. The starting point for a public expen-
diture analysis is accordingly the different public
authorities which fund the respective aspects of the
Data collection
drug policy. Irrespective of the governmental struc-
ture, expenditure by all relevant national, regional
The fourth step is to determine a strategy for collecting
or local government institutions, directly or indi-
the required data on public expenditure. In order to
rectly associated with drug policy, should always be
obtain the relevant information, analysts will have to
included.
examine policy documents and accounting data. It is
also recommended that interviews be conducted with
Matching stakeholders responsible for providing drug
the major stakeholders in the field, as a way to obtain
policy services with their financing entities can be chal-
better information about where financial data might
lenging, as the entities in charge of providing public
be available, and to search for international data sets.
► Page
12
Classifying and identifying data
public expenditure spent with the main aim of tackling
on drug-related spending
the drug phenomenon. However, no systematic data
collection has taken place.
It is essential to classify public expenditure according
to the purpose for which the expenditure is intended
The research community has not formally adopted any
(Reuter et al., 2004, and Eurostat, 2011), so the next
of these classification systems. However, as Eurostat
step to consider is how to group drug-related spending
publishes data annually in accordance with the COFOG
according to these sub-purposes. Taking into account
classification, their system is frequently used. Eurostat
the fact that drug-related expenditure on supply reduc-
publishes data on public spending with the purpose
tion initiatives comprises funds spent with the aim of
of guaranteeing public order and safety, which is split
combating the illegal drug phenomenon through the
into the above-mentioned classes. Researchers still
police, law courts and prison service, the classification
have to opt for criteria and models to disentangle
commonly used in international comparisons is the
drug-related spending within these overall expen-
Classification of the Functions of Government.1
diture classes.
► The Classification of the Functions of In fact, supply reduction initiatives are often embedded
Government (COFOG) provides a useful frame-
in policy projects that have broader objectives and bud-
work for classifying public spending according
gets. Therefore, firstly, it is important to look beyond
to its purpose. Under COFOG, most drug control
expenditure that is exclusively used for drug policy
policy expenditure is included in the “public
and also include spending intended for broader policy
order and safety” class of expenditure. The most
domains that indirectly, but significantly, contribute to
directly relevant subclasses are “police services”,
drug policy or impact upon it. For instance, investing
“law courts”, “prisons” and “R&D public order and
in effective policing in certain problematic neighbour-
safety” (Eurostat, 2011).
hoods, in order to prevent all types of crime, may also
contribute to preventing drug dealing. Consequently,
► Reuter (2006) relates public expenditure to the
supply and demand sides of the market. He
it is relevant to take into account overall budgets for
counts public spending on supply reduction
initiatives which may have direct synergies with drug
under “enforcement programmes” and con-
policy objectives. Secondly, modelling techniques are
siders that these are
“programmes aimed at
required in order to disentangle drug-related expendi-
traffickers and producers to shift up the supply
tures from overall expenditures. For instance, specific
curve for drugs; other things being equal, they
estimates and well-defined methodologies are needed
should raise the price of drugs and lower quantity.
to disentangle expenditure on drug-related crime from
Programmes aimed at users and retailers raise
overall public spending on law courts (more details on
the transaction costs of buying drugs”. In other
methodologies are given below).
words, enforcement programmes will make
In the event that not all the required data are available
drug producing, trafficking or dealing more
in international data sets, national databases should
expensive, because they either bring about an
be mapped. Every country has different structures
increase in the unitary costs of production or
for drug control services, provision and financing.
introduce greater risk into the business (Costa
National data mapping can be achieved in different
Storti and De Grauwe, 2009).
ways: information from registration systems, annual
These two classification systems are substantially
reports, interviews with key experts and/or contacts
different. COFOG has been co-designed by the statis-
working in this field (De Ruyver et al., 2007). Detailed
tical office of the European Union and the European
mapping of available data can be demanding and
Commission, with well-defined concepts and data
makes intensive use of resources. However, it is a
collection methodologies. Annual mandatory data
fundamental step for any estimate of public spending
collection has been implemented in every European
on drugs control.
Union member state since early 2000. The system
covers all functions provided and financed by govern-
Extracting expenditure data
ments. Drug-related activities are among the overall
from sources: labelled and
tasks provided and financed by the public sector,
unlabelled expenditure
but there are no specific methods specified or data
collected on drug-related expenditure. Drug-related
Some of the funds allocated by governments for
expenditure is embedded in broader items, such as
drug-related expenditure are identified as such in the
public expenditure on public order and safety, security,
budget (labelled expenditure). Often, however, the
health, education or social protection. Conversely,
majority of drug-related expenditure is not identified
the Reuter’s classification was designed to organize
(unlabelled expenditure) and must be estimated using
modelling approaches. Total drug-related expenditure
1. National estimates sometimes use alternative definitions.
is the sum of labelled and unlabelled drug-related
See (Lievens et al., 2016) or (Kopp, 2006) for further details.
expenditures (EMCDDA, 2016).
Steps in cost estimation and analysis ► Page
13
Since labelled expenditures are clearly identified in
For instance, the number of drug-law offenders in
budgets, calculation methods are not required. Time
prison may allow estimating the proportion that con-
series data are often available for labelled expenditure.
victed prisoners for drug-law offences represent from
The biggest challenge when data on labelled expen-
total prison population, and therefore to approach the
diture are compiled is to ensure complete mapping
proportion that drug-related expenditure on prisons
of all entities in charge of providing these services, as
represents from total prison spending; or the propor-
they can be spread across different government levels.
tion that drug-related cases handled by the police,
Depending on the national structures, expenditures
by prosecutors or by drug-law courts on the total
from all relevant national, regional or local government
number of cases handled by these institutions may
institutions that are directly or indirectly associated
allow starting approaching their drug-related costs.
with drug policy should always be included.
To design attributable fractions, models use the sup-
For unlabelled expenditure, a modelling procedure
port of data on crime, police, law courts or prisons
is necessary to estimate these different expenditures
activity. Appendix 3 presents information and data
and the modelling is based on either a top-down or
by groups of variables. These groups encompass total
a bottom-up approach. Frequently, these estimates
public expenditure, drug-related public expendi-
require the use of activity data to develop estimates
ture, supply reduction public expenditure; drug law
(for example, number of offences, offenders, criminal
offences; crime reported by the police, drug-related
cases, prisoners, etc.)
crime, conviction statistics and prison population.
Within groups, variables directly relevant are listed.
Modelling unlabelled expenditure
For each variable, data available are listed by source,
country and time period. Finally, this annex reports
The top-down modelling approach is mainly used when
the number of observations available for each vari-
the data available are embedded in programmes with
able. The relevant sources include data from the
broader goals and the fraction attributable to drugs can
Council of Europe, EMCDDA, EUROSTAT, Univeristeé
be identified as the proportion of the overall budget.
de Criminoligie et de Droit Penal de Lausanne and
In order to identify this proportion, models lay down
the UNODC.
objective criteria and calculate attributable fractions.
Despite that data available are still referent to a short
Unlabelled drug-related expenditure = Overall expenditure × Attributable fraction
period of time and that data are still missing in many
countries/years, gathering available information shall
There is no general methodology to determine attrib-
allow developing better methods and more accurate
utable fractions also known as repartition keys. In
estimates in the future.
practice, the appropriate
repartition key is determined
by the object of the estimate, data availability and the
When international sources are not available, publicly
modelling approaches available. Repartition keys are
available national statistics and data from competent
determined in different ways on the basis of informa-
public bodies should be used.
tion from activity data, extracted from registration
Advantages of the top-down approach
systems, annual reports and/or contacts working in
this field (De Ruyver et al., 2007). When determining
► Availability
of data: the availability of aggre-
attributable fractions, the data used should prefer-
gated budgetary data means that top-down
ably be publicly available or, even better, be stored
approaches can be easily applied.
within international databases. This can guarantee
► Low
cost: the availability of aggregate cost data
the possibility of producing similar estimates in the
means that the time and costs required to esti-
years that follow and in other countries.
mate a top-down unit cost can be reduced.
Appendix 3 summarizes the information and data
► Versatility
: the methodology enables an analyst
available in the most relevant international data-
to forecast how costs may change as a result
bases that can be used to estimate unlabelled public
of a reduction/an increase in service usage
expenditure on supply reduction. It describes the
(for instance, when there are less/more drug-
activity data reported, the reporting countries and
related crimes committed in a certain year than
time periods.
expected) and how these costs change over
time.
This Appendix reports the data available concern-
ing the annual statistics on national public expen-
There are, however, some limitations associated with a
diture on police, law courts and prisons reported by
top-down approach. Firstly, it does not clearly identify
Eurostat. These data include not only expenditure on
the different factors that may drive the costs and there-
drug-related initiatives, but the total spent to tackle all
fore often masks the underlying factors that determine
types of crime. Therefore, to disentangle drug-related
why unit costs vary within a single, yet heterogeneous,
expenditure and built attributable fractions, activity
services group. The criteria laid down for estimating
data shall be required.
attributable fractions do not always take into account
Page
14 ►
Public expenditure on supply reduction policies
all of the characteristics that may impact the total costs,
► Versatility: the methodology enables an analyst
which means that cost functions are often simplified.
to forecast how costs may change as a result of
These estimates are therefore often not very precise.
a reduction in service usage or demand.
Nevertheless, they are frequently used and provide
valuable proxy indicators for average costs.
However, the main disadvantage associated with the
bottom-up approach is that it requires detailed infor-
An alternative method of estimating drug-related
mation concerning both the type of costs associated
expenditure is to base estimates on the cost of provid-
with the provision of each service (full knowledge of
ing one unit of public service, known as the bottom-
the production function of each public service) and
up modelling approach. This modelling approach
the unit cost of each of the production factors.
starts by detailing how much it costs to provide one
unit of service or intervention. For instance, how
A combination of the two approaches may be pre-
much does it cost to keep one drug-law offender in
ferred. The advantage of this dual method is that
prison? Considering the different costs borne by the
it makes cross-verification possible; the data gath-
government for managing a prison facility, such as
ered on the basis of the top-down approach can be
the real costs of state property, prison staff, electric-
double-checked and supplemented with the data
ity, water and gas, machinery, etc., it is possible to
retrieved from project actors in the field.
estimate how much each detainee costs per day. This
sum can then be multiplied by the number of drug-
related detainees, taking into account the different
Reporting the value of estimates
costs associated with each type of detainee, based
on the different lengths of prison sentences, different
The basic format used to report the value of estimates
security levels, etc. To obtain the total expenditure on
is monetary value in nominal terms. However, to per-
drug control policy, all the cost elements should be
mit comparability over time, if reported in monetary
identified and totalised.
units estimates should be adjusted for inflation.
The bottom-up approach is particularly appealing
In addition, some authors report the value as a per-
when relevant unit costs are readily available. If, on
centage of GDP. This way of presenting the results
the other hand, every type and element of the drug
considers the economic dimension of a country. It is
policy has to be separately estimated, the approach
likely that drug-related spending is higher in a country
can be demanding and challenging.
with 85 million inhabitants than in a country with
Advantages of using a bottom-up approach
10 million inhabitants. The same holds for a higher
► Transparency: detailed cost data allow potential
income country (EMCDDA, 2008). For these reasons,
errors to be investigated and their impact tested
reporting the value of estimates as a percentage
– this facilitates a quality assurance process.
of GDP is a valid choice, since it takes account of
both the inflation problem and the size and level of
► Simplicity: the calculation required to estimate
a country’s income.
unit costs is easy to understand and direct,
providing a simple way to quantify the admin-
Another frequently used approach is reporting the
istrative and overhead costs associated with a
value of spending per number of problem drug users.
range of public services.
In this case, authors take into account the dimension
► Detail: detailed cost data can highlight vari-
of the drug problem. Reporting all these complemen-
ations, enable analysts to explore the factors
tary measurements of drug-related public spending
underlying variations and determine whether,
facilitates the validation of the data through cross-ver-
for example, some service users account for a
ification and increases the economic significance and
disproportionate share of the costs.
utility of the estimates.
Steps in cost estimation and analysis ► Page
15
Examples of sectorial models
In addition to collecting labelled public expenditure trafficking and dealing in illicit drugs; and driving
data, several examples exist of models applied to
under the influence of drugs and alcohol. The pro-
identify unlabelled expenditure on drug control in
portion that this time represented of the total work-
the national contexts. Different authors have applied
ing time for the police forces was then used as an
different definitions, data sets and models to estimate
«attributable fraction» for disentangling the amount of
items of drug-related expenditure. In this section,
money that was spent on drug-related police activities
examples of the definitions, data and models are
from the total spending on police activity. Within the
provided. The section aims to present the models
funds allocated for supply reduction, 14% was spent
utilised to estimate unlabelled drug-related spending
on drug-police activity, while law courts and prisons
on various types of supply control initiatives.
absorbed the remaining 21% and 65% respectively.
Moolenaar (2009) developed a model and provided an
Police
example of how to estimate public spending on supply
reduction initiatives in the Netherlands. The author
Public spending on drug-related police services is
applied a top-down model based on the average cost
probably best identified using a top-down approach.2
of police time spent on this work. Moolenaar calcu-
In order to disentangle this expenditure from total
lated the average duration of each type of criminal
public expenditure on public order and safety, as
investigation firstly by type of criminal activity (assum-
published by Eurostat, attributable fractions has been
ing that different criminal activities have different
calculated with the help of activity data. Authors
investigation costs – based on an assessment of the
have used auxiliary data to create these fractions, for
severity of the crime) and secondly by the number of
instance data on drug-related offences in proportion
cases registered for each criminal activity.
to the total number of offences. The following are
concrete examples of variables available in national
Customs
and international data sets, which have all been used
separately to estimate attributable fractions:
With regard to customs services, the share of customs
(1) The number of drug-related crimes per 100 000
officers who deal with drug control activities and/or
population.
the proportion of their working time compared to
the total number of custom officers has been used
(2) The number of drug-related cases reported
as an attributable fraction. As input data, the number
by the police out of the total number of police
of customs officers who are involved in drug control
cases.
activities forms the basis for the calculation. These
(3) The time the police forces spend on combating
estimates are then applied to the total expenses of the
the drug phenomenon in proportion to their
customs administration (minus any labelled expen-
total working time.
diture specifically targeted towards this activity). It
should, however, be noted that most customs officers
To estimate the share of costs attributable to spend-
do not exclusively devote their working time to drug
ing on police action against illicit drugs, the ratio is
control activities, so, ideally, the percentage, or the
multiplied by the total expenditure of the law enforce-
average, of working time devoted to drug control
ment agencies and reduced by any available data on
should be estimated.
labelled expenditure for drug control.
Kopp and Fenoglio (2002) estimated the drug-related
A concrete example is provided by the estimates for
expenditure of customs services based on the propor-
Italy. Genetti (2014) estimated drug-related public
tion of customs officers allocated to combating illicit
expenditure for police forces based on the amount
drug trafficking within the total number of customs
of time that staff spent on drug control in 2011: pos-
officers. This proportion constituted the attributable
session of illicit drugs for personal use; production,
fraction applied to the total customs budget. The
authors concluded that, in 2000, drug-related spend-
2. Although it is also possible to use a bottom-up approach,
ing on customs services represented approximately
since police activity is normally financed by the central
government budget, a pragmatic approach frequently used
10% of total drug-related spending in France. As these
is to prepare estimates based on these aggregated budgets.
authors pointed out, omitting costs such as those of
In this case, estimates for public spending are relatively
detection equipment or detection dogs may consti-
complete, considering all relevant costs. Additionally, this
tute a relevant limitation, since the costs of detection
method facilitates the international comparability of results,
since comparable data are available for most European
equipment may have a strong impact on relatively
countries.
small budgets such as that for customs.
► Page
16
Lievens et al. (2016) estimated drug-related expendi-
supreme court) was estimated based on a bottom-up
ture by customs based on the proportion that drug-
approach, which combined the number of cases and
law violations represented in the total number of
the average cost per case (Ramstedt, 2006). The data
violations registered by the ordinary customs services,
were obtained from a judicial system official. It should
investigation services and motorised brigades. They
be noted that the average case cost was not recorded
used a top-down approach based on the number of
by type of crime, instead the average for all types
drug-law offences in proportion to the total number
of crime was used as an indicator for drug crimes.
of offences. In 2012, customs spending represented
Moreover, for the court of appeal and supreme court,
3.6% of the total drug-related public spending on
only the total number of criminal cases was available
supply reduction in Belgium.
and the fraction of drug cases was estimated based
on the situation in the district courts (9%). Regarding
Court systems
the range of the estimates it should be noted that
the author included, as an upper limit for estimates,
Spending on drug-related court services has been
a specific percentage (30%) of the costs of tackling
extracted from total national expenditure on law
other crimes, as they may have been committed under
courts based on the following activity data:
the influence of drugs.
(1) The proportion of drug-related offences with
regard to the total number of offences.
Prisons
(2) The proportion of drug-related convictions with
regard to the total number of convictions;
Unlabelled costs of drug-law offenders in the prison
(3) The proportion of people imprisoned for
system can be estimated using the number of con-
drug-related offences with regard to the total
victed prisoners for drug-related offences expressed
number of prisoners.
as a proportion of the number of overall convictions.
For example, to estimate expenditure related to drug-
Kopp and Fenoglio (2002) estimated the expenditure
law offences in prisons, two elements have been taken
that drug-related crime represented in the French
into account: overall prison expenditure for a given
judicial system. They adopted a bottom-up approach,
fiscal year and the attributable fraction of prisoners
taking estimates of the time spent by the various
convicted of drug-law offences.
types of French judges and other types of adminis-
trative staff on drug-law cases and then multiplying
EMCDDA (2014) provides an example of how public
these estimates by their average salaries. Based on
expenditure on drug-law offenders in prisons can be
this method, the authors concluded that law courts
estimated. Based on data for public expenditure on
represented about 24.4% of total drug-related public
prisons provided by Eurostat and data on the number
expenditure in France in 2000.
of offenders provided by the Council of Europe, the
proportion of prisoners sentenced for a drug-law
In Croatia, drug-related spending on the courts
offence as their main offence was applied to the total
covered drug-related cases prosecuted by both the
public expenditure on prisons. A range of estimates
State and the courts (Budak et al., 2013). A top-down
was calculated, with low estimates taking into con-
approach was used based on estimates of the num-
sideration only prisoners sentenced for a drug-law
ber of drug-related crimes as a proportion of the
offence and high estimates also including pre-trial
total number of crimes registered by the police. The
prisoners. Between 2000 and 2010, this expenditure
researchers recognised that these estimates were
was estimated to range, on average, between 0.03% to
crude, but they could not obtain a better proxy for
0.05% of GDP in 22 European countries. On applying
this particular component of the estimates.
these percentages to the entire EU for the year 2010,
In Sweden, expenditure on drug-related prosecutions
the estimated expenditure was within the range of
and court cases (district court, court of appeal and
3.7 billion euros to 5.9 billion euros.
Examples of sectorial models ► Page
17
Examples of national studies
Several models and data sources have been 2008 (Vander Laenen, De Ruyver, Caulkins & Lievens,
applied in different national contexts to identify
2012). It further developed upon two earlier stud-
labelled and unlabelled expenditure allocated to
ies (De Ruyver et al. 2004, 2007) by carrying out a
drug control initiatives. Due to national specificities,
new and more refined estimation of public expendi-
neither their external validity nor the comparability
ture to combat illegal
drugs. The study combined a
of the methods used have been tested. The extent
top-down and a bottom-up approach for estimating
and specificity of labelled drug-related expenditure
public expenditure. The vast majority (98.45%) of
vary substantially across countries, as do the data and
the expenditures were identified as a result of the
methods applied for estimating unlabelled expen-
top-down approach. Public expenditures identified
diture. The national estimates presented below are
through the bottom-up approach (1.55%) concerned
therefore not directly comparable. They nonetheless
organisations that depended on the government for
provide examples of useful models and estimates and
most of their funding.
illustrate some of the approaches applied.
The total drug-related expenditure was broken down
Croatia
by programme: law enforcement, treatment, pre-
vention, harm reduction and other. For 2008, public
Budak et al. (2013) aimed to identify the central gov-
expenditure on law enforcement constituted 45% of
ernment’s total drug-related public expenditure and
the total expenditure. This was slightly less than the
to develop a method of estimating and allocating
spending on treatment (49%) and substantially more
unlabelled expenditure by type of drug policy pro-
than that on prevention (4%), harm reduction (0.8%)
gramme (prevention, treatment, social reintegration,
and other (1.2%). When estimated in the same way in
harm reduction and law enforcement). For labelled
2004 and 2008, public expenditure on law enforce-
expenditure, governmental institutions were asked
ment showed a substantial increase, both nominally
to classify budget expenditure by public function
(from 186 038 337 euros to 243 000 490 euros) and
and by type of programme. Unlabelled expenditures
in relation to the other programmes (it increased by
were identified indirectly with a system of reparti-
6 percentage points).
tion keys, which were applied to the total state unit
budget (minus labelled costs). The repartition keys
were estimated using supply reduction activity data.
Italy
Unlabelled public expenditures were estimated on
the assumption that they make up the part of public
For the purpose of estimating drug-related public
expenditure remaining after labelled public expendi-
expenditure in Italy (Reitox Italian Focal Point, 2014), a
tures for combating drug abuse have been deducted
model was developed to analyse the flow of cost infor-
from the total expenditure of a public body.
mation from various sources. The model consisted of
For the period 2009-2012 the study suggested that
four components: private or indirect costs (individual
public expenditure on law enforcement constituted
costs and costs due to loss of productive capacity) and
about 73% of total drug-related public expenditure by
public expenditure or direct costs (law enforcement
central government, whereas prevention, treatment,
costs, social and health costs). To determine the costs
social reintegration and harm reduction represented
of law enforcement, different sources of information
12%, 13%, 0.3% and 2%, respectively. When comparing
were used: data concerning traffic control and traffic
unlabelled expenditure for the different programmes
accidents; police data on people caught with drugs
in a single year (2011), unlabelled expenditure on law
for personal use; data on the number of convictions
enforcement represented 82% of total unlabelled
for drug trafficking; and data on crimes related to
drug-related expenditure. On the other hand, law
drug trafficking.
enforcement accounted for 4% of the total labelled
expenditure. Overall, the estimates indicated that
For 2011, the cost of drug-related law enforcement
drug-related expenditure stood at 0.2 % of the GDP.
was estimated at 1 600 435 296.60 euros, or roughly
40 euros per inhabitant aged 15-64 years. The largest
Belgium
cost component was prisons and alternative measures
(65%), whereas trials and legal expenses, law enforce-
The study
Drugs in Figures III measured how much
ment activities and administration represented 21.3%,
the Belgian Government spent on drug policy in
13% and 0.7%, respectively.
► Page
18
France
costs due to loss of productivity) and public spend-
ing, including direct spending on supply reduction
In a French study the method relied on analysing
services. These were disaggregated into spending
activity records, wherever available in the agencies
on law enforcement and on criminal justice, which
concerned (Kopp, 2015). The total expenditure for drug-
included factors such as law enforcement agencies
related activities was then aggregated. The top-down
and the federal drug control service.
approach applied in this case provided an indication of
the proportion of expenditure for drug control related
Public expenditure on supply reduction services was
activities compared to the overall expenditure of all
estimated using a top-down approach and various
the institutions and agencies concerned. To obtain an
sources of information: police data on persons caught
estimate, a fraction was applied to the total staff and
with drugs for personal use; data on the number of
routine operating costs of the agency concerned. In the
sentences for drug trafficking; and data on crimes
year 2010, for example, 10% of police activities were
related to drug trafficking. As there was no pub-
attributable to drug control activities, which involved
lished information on the fraction attributable to
60 police units. In this example, police expenditures
drug-related crime in Russia, the fraction estimated
attributable to drug-related activities were calculated
in a study by the US Office of National Drug Control
by multi plying the total expenditure of the police
(22%) was employed with a view to estimating the
services by this fraction of 10%.
law enforcement and judicial system expenditures.
A bottom-up approach was also adopted, based on the
working time of staff performing support functions in
Portugal
connection with drug-related activities or the equip-
There are few examples of attempts to estimate
ment used, as recorded by the agencies concerned.
the impact of changes in the legal system on drug-
For example, the time spent giving prevention talks
related public expenditure and drug-related bud-
in schools and the time spent by the police forces on
gets. Gonçalves et al. (2015) are an exception as they
alcohol tests were included in the calculations.
conducted a comprehensive social cost analysis of
the situation before and after decriminalisation in
Luxembourg
Portugal. The authors found a significant reduction in
the non-health related costs of drug policy between
Since 1999, the social costs of drugs have been esti-
2000 and 2004, in particular in the legal system (direct)
mated annually in Luxembourg. These estimates take
costs. Although these observations highlight signifi-
account of the total costs to public and private agents
cant changes, prudence is still called for in concluding
of the consequences of drug use and trafficking. Public
causal relationships with the new Portuguese National
spending is analysed in five sectors: prevention, treat-
Strategy for the Fight against Drugs (NSFAD).
ment, harm reduction, law enforcement and research.
In the law enforcement field, as in other fields, the
analysts face the twofold challenge of accounting
Other national studies
for drug-related spending, as financed by different
general government levels, and of developing models
There are other examples of public expenditure studies
to extract unlabelled drug-related expenditure from
additional to those mentioned above. For instance,
broader budgets (Origer, 2002).
Mostardt et al. (2010) estimated public expenditure
in 2006 for Germany using data from Eurostat and
Law enforcement was estimated to account for 39%
the COFOG system, concluding that supply reduction
of total drug-related public expenditure in 1999; pre-
represented close to 65% of the total drug-related
vention, treatment and harm reduction expenditure
public spending; Rigter (2006) estimated that 75% of
amounted to 59%, whereas research and other stood
public expenditure was spent on law enforcement in
at 2%. Overall, drug-related public expenditure rep-
the Netherlands; Ramstedt (2006) presented public
resented 0.013% of GDP.
expenditure estimates for Sweden, whereas public
spending on supply reduction represented between
Russia
70 to 76% of the total; and Lievens et al. (2016) pub-
lished a social cost study, including estimates of public
For Russia, public expenditures on law enforcement
expenditure to deal with legal and illegal drugs in
agencies and on the judicial system were estimated as
Belgium. There are also US (ONDCP, 1989-2015) and
part of a social study (Potapchik and Popovich, 2014).
Australian (Moore, 2008) estimates. Despite substantial
The comprehensive model encompassed private and
differences, the studies may all be viewed as necessary
indirect costs (the cost for the individual and the
first steps in national drug policy evaluations.
Examples of national studies ► Page
19
International databases
used to model drug-related
public expenditure
The only available international compilation Appendix 1 provides a list of relevant data sources.
of updated estimates of drug-related public
In addition to the two data sources already men-
expenditure on supply reduction is published
tioned, there is information on international reporting
by the EMCDDA for the EU member states3, report-
concerning supply reduction factors such as: drug
ing the available national estimates of total drug-re-
related crime (EMCDDA and the European Institute
lated spending and spending separated into sup-
for Crime Prevention and Control); prison activity
ply and demand reduction initiatives. The scope for
and costs (the Council of Europe);crime and criminal
cross-country comparisons is nonetheless limited
justice systems (Eurostat and the European Institute
because the estimates often do not use comparable
for Crime Prevention and Control). Appendix 3 makes
definitions, data sets or methodologies.
an extensive description of data published by inter-
Another database of particular relevance is Eurostat.
national institutions.
This is partly because it is based on a consistent cat-
egorisation system and on internationally agreed
definitions, which are required features for interna-
tional comparison. The Classification of the Functions
of Government (COFOG) is a detailed classification
system for the functions or socioeconomic objectives
that general government units aim to achieve through
a range of outlays. Eurostat has published annual data
according to the COFOG classification for European
countries since the early 1990s. This data source has
proved to be relevant and amenable to a wide variety
of analytic applications. However, the data set does
not comprise data concerning specific spending on
drug-related public initiatives. In order to disentangle
drug-related expenditure from the broad classes of
public spending, modelling approaches are adopted
according to the sector of intervention.
3. See http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/topics/
drug-related-public-expenditure.
► Page
20
Conclusions
► Every European country allocates significant
► The total budget for supply reduction services
public resources to the drug policy field. Public
is the sum of labelled and unlabelled expendi-
expenditure studies can reveal how much public
tures. Labelled expenditures are clearly iden-
authorities are spending on drug policy and for
tified in public budgets, whereas a modelling
what purposes such expenditure is incurred.
procedure is required for estimating unlabelled
ones. The modelling is based on either a top-
► Public expenditure estimates can be used as a
tool for assessing whether policy intentions are
down or a bottom-up approach. Using both
actually reflected in action, and they constitute
approaches as complementary is advantageous
a necessary tool for implementing thorough
but expensive. A list of advantages and lim-
policy evaluations. Public expenditure studies
itations for both alternatives is provided, in
should mirror all relevant activities and policy
addition to empirical expenditure studies for
approaches and may be particularly appropriate
supply reduction activities in some European
in times of austerity.
countries.
► Estimates exist for 16 EU countries, out of the
30 potential reporting countries (EMCDDA,
► While recognising the limitations imposed by
2014b). Estimates suggested that drug-related
the data sets currently available, this report
expenditure ranged from 0.01 % to 0.5 % of GDP.
provides examples of current practice and, in so
12 out of the 16 reporting countries allocate the
doing, suggests areas of future focus for desired
largest share of drug-related public expenditure
methodological development. It is hoped that
for supply reduction.
the estimation of drug-related public expendi-
ture on supply reduction initiatives and policy
► Data availability is one of the main limitations in
evaluation will move forward in Europe. For
this field. The use of international databases is
continued improvements to take place, how-
recommended, whenever possible. These data
ever, it is essential that a network of experts is
sets employ broadly accepted concepts and
developed and maintained. Partnerships should
definitions providing better comparable data.
be extended and maintained with the goal
Sometimes, however, national data sets can con-
of developing good practices, standards and
tain more detailed or reliable information.
guidelines in this field.
► Page
21
Recommendations
1. Improving estimation methods with further meth-
5. A methodology using a set of repartition keys
odological developments; agreeing on best prac-
according to COFOG categories can be a starting
tices and; finding reliable standardised data will
point in order to estimate unlabelled drug-related
enhance the utility of public expenditure estimates,
expenditures. General agreement among all par-
as that will permit analysis over time and across
ticipating countries on definitions and methods
policy areas and countries.
will help to improve the comparability of results
2. Improved data quality and developing relevant
between countries.
data sources is needed for conducting more precise
6. Public expenditure studies involve analytical work,
estimations of spending on drug control measures
which requires adequate human and technical
and to measure the impact of drug control policies.
capacities in all relevant stakeholder fields. This is
One option is to develop guidelines for data col-
important for obtaining the data quality needed
lection and economic modelling of evaluations.
for aggregation and comparison. To achieve this,
3. It is essential to classify public expenditure based on
a network of experts could be established and a
the purpose for which the expenditure is intended.
working group of experts developed.
It is therefore useful to use a consistent categorisa-
7. Developing methods to estimate public expendi-
tion system, such as the international Classification
ture on supply reduction requires effective work-
of the Functions of Government (COFOG).
ing partnerships between drug policymakers and
4. Cross-country comparisons are important, but
specialists in the police, law courts and prisons.
they are only possible with a common methodol-
Collaboration with public accountancy experts and
ogy of public expenditure estimates. International
those in charge of economic modelling is required
data sets and modelling techniques need to be
to guarantee meaningful estimates.
expanded and improved in order to increase the
capacity to carry evidence based on drug policy
evaluations in the drug field.
► Page
22
Glossary
Attributable fractions also known as
repartition
Cost-benefit analysis converts all types of outcomes
keys are coefficients estimated to help those who
to a monetary equivalent, in contrast to cost-effective-
estimate drug-related expenditure with the purpose
ness analysis (Chalk et al., 2013 and Drummond et al.,
of reflecting the proportion of expenditure allocated
1997). As a result, the euro value of the intervention’s
to finance drug-related initiatives. Therefore, attrib-
benefits can be directly compared with the euro value
utable fractions are designed to accurately isolate
of the intervention’s costs. Two common methods
drug-spending, when drug-related expenditure is
for comparing benefits and costs include calculating
embedded into a broader budgetary structure. There
net benefits (costs are subtracted from benefits) and
is no general methodology to determine repartition
benefit-cost ratios (benefits are expressed as a percent-
keys. It depends on the case (on the basis of the activ-
age of programme costs). A related type of analysis is
ity information and data available) (Vander Laenen
the cost-offset analysis in which future costs or cost-
et al, 2011).
savings are examined. Since cost-benefit analyses
combine multiple outcomes into a single measure
Cost analysis provides monetary estimates of the
and allow direct comparison of costs to benefits, they
costs of a particular intervention or set of interven-
often provide clearer guidance than cost-effectiveness
tions, and also information on the amount of resources
analyses on which treatment programmes should be
(e.g. labour, facility, supplies) used in their provision.
adopted – namely those programmes whose ben-
The latter information is often used to identify critical
efits exceed their costs. Cost-effectiveness analyses
cost components of the intervention and to assess
can provide a ranking of competing alternatives but
whether the costs are affected by changes in key
not information on the extrinsic value of any single
assumptions (Bray and Zarkin, 2006). In addition
intervention independent of the alternatives (Bray
to being the first step in a cost-effectiveness and
and Zarkin, 2006).
cost-benefit analysis, cost studies can also be used
to compare the relative costs of one intervention to
General government comprises the central govern-
another or to monetise savings from implementing
ment, state government (in some countries it applies
a particular action (Chalk et al., 2013).
to the federal level of government), local and social
Cost-effectiveness analysis involves estimating
security funds (Eurostat, 2011).
the ratio of the difference in costs between two
alternatives (net costs) divided by the difference in
Government expenditure is defined as a particular
the outcomes (net effectiveness) (Gold et al., 1996).
set of transactions, comprising the expending under-
Traditionally, this measure has been used in health
taken by general government sector units (Eurostat,
economics. However, this evaluation tool can be used
2011).
in any framework of policy intervention, given that the
outcome measures are those relevant for each type
Economic evaluation is a comparative analysis of
of public policy analysed. It is, essentially, the incre-
alternative actions in terms of both their costs and
mental price of obtaining a unit outcome effect (e.g.
consequences (Drummond et al., 1997).
a 10% reduction in the number of drug-law offences
in the past month) from a given police intervention
Labelled drug-related expenditure is the ex-ante
(e.g. introducing drug squads in problem neighbour-
planned public expenditure made by general gov-
hoods) when compared to an alternative (e.g. regular
ernment in the budget that reflects the public and
policing). Intervention costs are estimated in monetary
voluntary commitment of a country in the field of
units, such as the euro. The effect of the intervention
drugs. In addition, it is any expenditure identified
can be any policy-relevant outcome that is collected
as drug-related in public accountancy documents
for all interventions under consideration.
(EMCDDA, 2008).
► Page
23
Public expenditure is the value of goods and services
costs caused by the consequences of drug use, which
purchased by the general government of a state in
can affect anyone in society, including those who
order to perform each of its functions. The functions
do not necessarily use drugs or are involved in drug
of governments are, among others, the provision of
demand, supply or drug policy. For instance, external
health care, justice, public order, education and social
costs are the expenditure on drug-related nuisance,
protection. Public expenditure studies are important
expenditure on tackling offences committed under the
because they provide information about the size and
influence of drugs, losses of productivity or absentee-
the composition of the costs of public programmes
ism associated with either drug trafficking or dealing
and interventions (Eurostat, 2011).
activities, among others (Single et al., 2003).
Total drug-related public expenditure is the sum of
Social costs of illegal drugs comprise all costs carried
the labelled and unlabelled drug-related expenditure
by
the different sectors of society as a consequence
(EMCDDA, 2008).
of the illicit drug phenomenon. Public expenditure
is only one of the cost elements here. Social cost is
Unlabelled drug-related expenditure is the non-
the sum of public expenditure, private expenditure
planned or non-publicly announced ex-post public
and external costs. Private expenditure constitutes,
expenditure incurred by the general government in
for instance, the money spent by private citizens to
tackling drugs that is not identified as drug-related
purchase illicit drugs. External costs comprise the
in the budget (EMCDDA, 2008).
Page
24 ►
Public expenditure on supply reduction policies
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Page
26 ►
Public expenditure on supply reduction policies
Appendix 1 – Available databases
and potential indicators for drug-
related public expenditures
Examples of international databases, which can be used for estimating drug-related
public expenditures
Level of
estimation
Examples of databases
Estimation data
International EMCDDA Statistical
– The EMCDDA statistical bulletin covers a broad range of
bulletin
areas including the most recent estimates of drug-related
and
crime in the form of drug seizures, types of offence, price,
purity and use in prison, and country responses to the
Public expenditure
drug situation in Europe. http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/
database
data/stats2015
– The EMCDDA also publishes the most recent national data
on drug-related public expenditures available in Europe.
– http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/topics/
drug-related-public-expenditure
WHO Database
–
Global Information System on Resources for the
Prevention and Treatment of Substance Use Disorders
(includes information about: prevalence and burden of
Disease, monitoring and surveillance; policy; treatment
system and services; pharmacological treatment; preven-
tion programmes for substance use and related harm; and
human resources and civil society involvement).
Eurostat
Public expenditure according to the Classification of the
Functions of Government (COFOG)
COFOG published data according to two levels of classification
(United Nations, 2008). The first classifies expenditure into 10
general functions, one of which is “Public order and safety”. The
second classifies expenditure into 69 groups, in which there
are three indicators of interest: police service, law courts and
prisons. The definitions below are provided by the UNODC.
From the Public order and safety section:
Police services
– Administration of police affairs and services, including alien
registration, issuing work and travel documents to immi-
grants, maintenance of arrest records and statistics related to
police work, road traffic regulation and control, prevention
of smuggling and control of offshore and ocean fishing.
– Operation of regular and auxiliary police forces, of port,
border and coast guards, and of other special police forces
maintained by public authorities; operation of police labora-
tories; operation or support of police training programmes.
► Page
27
Level of
estimation
Examples of databases
Estimation data
Law Courts
– Administration, operation or support of civil and criminal
law courts and the judicial system, including enforcement
of fines and legal settlements imposed by the courts and
operation of parole and probation systems.
– Legal representation and advice on behalf of the govern-
ment or on behalf of others provided by government, in
cash or in services.
Prisons
– Administration, operation or support of prisons and other
places for the detention or rehabilitation of criminals such
as prison farms, workhouses, reformatories, asylums for the
criminally insane, etc.
UN-CTS (Crime and
Data produced by UNODC have multiple sources. Mem-
Criminal Justice
ber States regularly submit to UNODC statistics on drugs
Statistics)
(through the Annual Report Questionnaire) and crime and
criminal justice (through the annual Surveys on Crime Trends
and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems). Other data are
collected through national surveys implemented by UNODC
in co-operation with national governments or are compiled
from scientific literature. UNODC attempts to maximise the
comparability of the data and estimate regional and global
statistics.
SPACE
SPACE unites two related projects: SPACE I provides data
on penal institutions and the population held in custody,
as well as on certain conditions of detention, while SPACE
II collects information on persons serving non-custodial
sanctions and alternative measures.
Data are collected every two years by means of two question-
naires sent to the equivalents of the ministries of justice, the
penitentiary administrations and the probation authorities of
each country in Europe. The collection and validation of these
data then takes place at the University of Lausanne, where
analyses and interpretations for both projects are formulated
through a common methodology. This methodology aims
to allow comparisons among states at European level, by
proposing SPACE categories instead of each country’s own
national categories, while still including questions regarding
the particularities of their specific sanctions and measures. The
SPACE project produces two annual reports: SPACE I – Prison
Populations and SPACE II – Persons Serving Non-Custodial
Sanctions and Measures, presenting the data collected and
the key points of the results.
Page
28 ►
Public expenditure on supply reduction policies
Level of
estimation
Examples of databases
Estimation data
European Sourcebook
The Sourcebook contains data from 41 European countries
on Crime and Criminal
regarding their criminal justice systems. The book is structured
Justice Statistics
into six main chapters covering different stages of the judicial
system: Police Statistics, Prosecution Statistics, Conviction
Statistics, Prison Statistics, Probation Statistics and, for the 2014
edition, a final chapter on National Victimization Surveys. The
data provided are systematically accompanied by texts and
notes relating to the specificity of each country and which
discuss the different challenges attributed to the comparison
of the data.
Social Expenditure
The OECD Social Expenditure Database (SOCX) provides a
Database
unique tool for monitoring trends in aggregate social expendi-
ture and analysing changes in its composition. The main social
policy areas are as follows: old age, survivors, incapacity-related
benefits, health, family, active labour market programmes,
unemployment, housing, and other social policy areas.
ESPAD
Drug abuse prevalence among teenagers in European
countries.
National
Database of national
Expenditures of different groups, in which can be found some
statistics
indicators of interest: police service, law courts, prisons, medi-
cal and social services.
Annual report from
Data on Social Services Department expenditures at regional
Social Services
level and the number of drug users receiving social benefits
Department
in connection with drug use.
Appendix 1 – Available databases and potential indicators for drug-related public expenditures ► Page
29
Appendix 2 – The international
Classification of the Functions
of Government (COFOG)
The COFOG classification has three structural (non-investment) transfers. Eurostat has published
levels. At the first level, government expenditure
annual data according to the COFOG definitions for
is broken down into 10 functions. These are then
the European Union countries since the early 2000s.
divided into 69 groups (second level of COFOG), which
The extensive structure of COFOG contrasts with the
are themselves divided into classes at the third level –
four-category division introduced by Reuter (2006),
the most detailed classification level. COFOG permits
based on the likely effects of services provided by
an examination over time of trends in government
drug policy programmes (namely prevention, treat-
outlays on particular functions (Eurostat, 2011).
ment, enforcement and harm reduction). Reuter’s
programme division is the classification of the recip-
The detailed three-level structure of COFOG includes
ients (NPOs) with drug-policy programmes.
financial flows of public finance, which are going from
An example of an overview of public expenditure
state and local (regional and municipal) budgets to
groups, broken down according to the main public
non-profit organisations (NPOs) with drug-policy
functions pursuant to the international classification
programmes. COFOG is a functional classification
of the functions of the government at the third level,
system used by the System of National Accounts
is shown in the table below.
1993. COFOG is a useful international classification
system for spatial comparison (between countries)
A pragmatic approach towards drug-related research
and also for time comparison (over time). In principle,
and public expenditure estimates would suggest
its units of classification are individual transactions.
adopting a classification such as COFOG, as proposed
This means that each outlay (purchase or transfer)
by Eurostat. The COFOG classification system guar-
should be assigned a COFOG code according to the
antees annually available data for most European
function that the transaction serves. This principle is
countries, according to harmonised definitions and
valid for both capital transfers (investment) and current
standard data collection procedures.
Public expenditures according to the classification of public functions
Public functions
Public functions at the third level of classification
01 General public services
014 Basic research
03 Public order and safety
031 Police services
033 Law courts
034 Prisons
07 Health
071 Medical products, appliances and equipment
072 Outpatient services
073 Hospital services
074 Public health services
075 R&D health
09 Education
091 Pre-primary and primary education
092 Secondary education
094 Tertiary education
095 Education non-definable by level
096 Subsidiary services to education
10 Social protection
105 Unemployment
106 Housing
107 Social exclusion
► Page
30
Appendix 3 – Summary tables:
data from international databases
Table 1 - Public expenditure
Data and
Dataset
Type of
DATABASE
YEARS
Number of
Statistics
information
observations(*)
Expenditure
Law Courts
Eurostat,
Europe (31) = 473/651
Public
of the
Police Services
European
Europe (31) = 473/651
expenditure general
Union
1995-2015
government
Prisons
Europe (31) = 473/651
(EU)
Total drug-
related public
expenditure
Drug-
Public
Country Drug
related
expenditure
Percentage
Profiles,
Last year
public
on supply
spent on supply
available
EU (30) =20/30
expenditure reduction
reduction
EMCDDA, (EU)
Percentage spent
on demand
reduction
(*) The number of observations reports the number of data records, taking into account the territory; countries and years available.
The ratio compares the number of effectively reported observations with the total number of records, if no data were missing.
Example: Europe (44) = 28/368: in Table 4, the conviction statistics of the European Sourcebook of crime and criminal justice sta-
tistics reports 28 data records, for the community sanctions imposed to drug offences in 2010, compared to the 368 data records
that would exist if no data were missing, in the region Europe (which accounts with 44 countries).
► Page
31
Table 2 – Drug law offences
Data and
Statistics
Dataset
Type of information
DATABASE
Years
Number of
observations(*)
Number Offences
EU (30) =
364/600
of
1995-2014
offences
Offender
EU (30) =
262/600
Offences Use
EU (30) =
230/300
by Types
2004-2013
Supply
EU (30) =
238/300
Total
2004-2013
EU (30) =
203/300
Cannabis
Use
EU (30) =
163/270
2005-2013
Supply
EU (30) =
160/270
Total
2004-2013
EU (30) =
186/300
Heroin
Use
EU (30) =
159/270
2005-2013
Supply
EU (30) =
160/270
Total
2004-2013
EU (30) =
185/300
Cocaine
Use
EU (30) =
159/270
2005-2013
Supply
EU (30) =
176/270
Drug law
Drug Law
Total
EMCCDA
EU (30) =
50/270
offences
Offences
(EU)
Crack
Use
2005-2013
EU (30) =
47/270
Offences
Supply
EU (30) =
37/270
by drug
Total
EU (30) =
163/270
Amphetamine
Use
2005-2013
EU (30) =
74/270
Supply
EU (30) =
87/270
Total
EU (30) =
98/270
Methamphetamine Use
2005-2013
EU (30) =
74/270
Supply
EU (30) =
87/270
Total
EU (30) =
162/270
Ecstasy
Use
2005-2013
EU (30) =
144/270
Supply
EU (30) =
153/270
Total
EU (30) =
127/270
LSD
Use
2005-2013
EU (30) =
108/270
Supply
EU (30) =
95/270
Page
32 ►
Public expenditure on supply reduction policies
Table 3 – Prison population
Data and
Statistics
Dataset
Type of information
DATABASE
YEARS
Number of
observations(*)
Persons held in
Availability of
institutions for drug institutions for drug
users offenders
users offenders,
2014
CoE (47) =
28/53
outside penal
outside penal
institutions
institutions
Population on
1st January
Total number of
prisoners (including
pre-trial detainees)
Total number of
detainees held in
remand institutions/
Situation of prison
2009 &
2009: CoE (47) =
343/424
sections (pre-trials)
population
2014
2014: COE (47) =
255/265
Total number of
prisoners held in
institutions serving
a sentence
Total capacity of
penal institutions
Surface area per
prisoner (m^2)
Total number
Evolution of prison
of prisoners
CoE (47) =
707/795
population
2000-2014
Prison
Space I,
Prison population
CoE (47) =
683/795
population
Council of
Untried detainees
Europe (CoE)
(no court decision)”
Detainees found
guilty but no
sentence yet
Sentenced prisoners
(appealed or
can do so)
Detainees with no
final sentence, but
serving a prison
sentence in advance
Legal status of
2009 &
2009: CoE (47) =
274/424
prison population
Sentenced prisoners
2014
2014: CoE (47) =
315/477
(final sentence),
of which:
– fine defaulters
– in revocation,
suspension or
annulment of the
conditional release
or probation
Other cases
Total number of
prisoners (including
pre-trial detainees)
Appendix 3 – Summary tables: data from international databases ► Page
33
Data and
Statistics
Dataset
Type of information
DATABASE
YEARS
Number of
observations(*)
Main offence of
sentenced prisoners Drug offences
2009 &
(Final Sentence)
2014
CoE (47) =
88/106
Lengths of
sentences imposed
Length of the
2009
CoE (47) =
405/583
(final sentenced
sentences by month,
prisoners)
years or lifetime
2014
CoE (47) =
557/689
Prison population
Prison population
Europe (44) =
387/414
Stock – Total
(including pre-trial
European
2003-2011
detainees): stock
Prison population
Sourcebook
Europe (44) =
356/414
Pre-trial detainees
of crime
and criminal
Total criminal offences
2006 &
justice
2010
Europe (44) =
88/92
statistics,
Convicted prison
Drug offences
population by
(of which %)
2010
Europe (44) =
38/46
Université de
type of offence
Lausanne
Convicted prison
population in 2010
2006 &
Drug offences: Total
2010
Europe (44) = 46/92
Sentenced persons
Drug Offences
Europe (26) =
49/81
UNODC
held in prisons
2010-2012
Drug Trafficking
Europe (26) =
36/81
Page
34 ►
Public expenditure on supply reduction policies
Table 4 – Cases registered by the police, prosecutors and law courts
Data and
Statistics
Dataset
Type of information
DATABASE
YEARS
Number of
observations(*)
Crime
Total
1993-2007 Europe (36) =
536/585
Recorded by
Eurostat
Unlawful acts involving
1993-2007 Europe (36) =
486/585
the Police
controlled drugs or precursors
2008-2014 Europe (39) =
275/287
Drug-Related
Total
Europe (40) =
215/258
Crimes at
the national
Drug Possession
Europe (21) =
101/138
level, number
UNODC
2003-2008
of police-
Police
recorded
Drug Trafficking
Europe (37) =
175/240
statistics
offences
Criminal Offences
Europe (42) =
347/387
Offences
Drug Offences
Europe (42) =
333/387
Police
Statistics-
Drug Trafficking
Europe (41) =
269/387
Offences/
2003-2011
Criminal Offenders
Europe (42) =
263/396
Offenders
Offenders
Drug Offenders
Europe (42) =
245/396
Drug Trafficking
Europe (42) =
190/396
Output cases: Total
Europe (42) =
218/396
Percentage brought before
2003-2011
a court of the total output of
Criminal cases
criminal cases handled by the
Europe (42) =
198/396
handled by the prosecuting authorities
prosecuting
authorities
Output
Drug Offences
European
Europe (42) =
33/88
cases by
Sourcebook
offence
2010
Drug Trafficking
of crime
group
Europe (42) =
25/88
and criminal
Convictions
Criminal offences
justice
Europe (42) =
293/369
Statistics-
statistics
Drug offences
2003-2011 Europe (42) =
272/369
Conviction Persons
statistics
convicted
Drug trafficking
Europe (42) =
193/369
2006
Europe (41) =
203/473
Criminal offences
2010
Europe (41) =
176/602
Total persons
receiving
2006
Europe (41) =
175/473
sanctions/
Drug offences
2010
Europe (41) =
158/602
measures
2006
Europe (41) =
113/473
Drug trafficking
2010
Europe (41) =
104/602
Community
Criminal offences
Europe (44) =
52/368
sanctions and
measures
2010
imposed
Drug offences
Europe (44) =
28/368
Appendix 3 – Summary tables: data from international databases ► Page
35
Acronyms
Council of Europe (47) = CoE(47): Albania, Andorra,
Europe (31): Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bosnia-
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom
Malta, Republic of Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro,
Europe (36): Europe (31) + Liechtenstein, Montenegro,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
TRF-Macedonia, Serbia, Turkey
Russian Federation, San Marino, Serbia, Slovak
Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, “The
Europe (37): Europe (21) + Republic of Moldova,
former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia”, Turkey,
Russian Federation, Slovakia, Ukraine, Denmark,
Ukraine, United Kingdom
Estonia, Ireland, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Italy,
Montenegro, Portugal, Serbia, Spain, TRF- Macedonia,
European Union (30)= EU(30): Austria, Belgium,
Germany, Monaco
Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark,
Europa (39): Europe (36) + Albania, Bosnia-
Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
Herzegovina, Kosovo
Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Europa (40): Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United
Hungary, Poland, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia,
Kingdom
Ukraine, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Ireland,
Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom,
Europe (21): Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic,
Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, Italy,
Hungary, Poland, Romania, Finland, Iceland, Lithuania,
Malta, Montenegro, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain,
Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom, Albania, Croatia,
TRF- Macedonia, Austria, Belgium, France, Germany,
Malta, Slovenia, Belgium, France, Liechtenstein,
Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands,
Luxembourg, Switzerland
Switzerland
Europa (41): Europa (42), except Luxembourg
Europe (26): Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Poland, Romania,
Europe (42): Europa (31) + Albania, Armenia, Bosnia-
Russian, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Latvia,
Herzegovina, Georgia, Kosovo, Moldova, Russia, Serbia,
Lithuania, Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom, Andorra,
TRF- Macedonia, Turkey, Ukraine
Greece, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, Austria,
Liechtenstein, Monaco, Netherlands, Switzerland
Europe (44): Europe (42) + Azerbaijan, Montenegro
Table references
Aebi, M. F., Delgrande, N. (2011). SPACE I- Council
EMCDDA. (2017). http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/
of Europe Annual Penal Statistics. Survey 2009.
topics/drug-related-public-expenditure
Strasbourg: Council of Europe
Eurostat. (2017). http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/
Aebi, M. F., Tiago, M. M. & Burkhardt, C. (2015). SPACE
database?node_code=gov_10a_exp
I- Council of Europe Annual Penal Statistics: Prison pop-
UNODC. (2017). http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/
ulations. Survey 2014.Strasbourg: Council of Europe
data-and-analysis/statistics/crime.html
EMCDDA. (2017). http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/
UNODC. (2017). http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/
data/stats2015
data-and-analysis/statistics/crime.html
► Page
36
Evaluating drug policy is an integral part of a cost-efficient
approach to tackle illicit drugs. This report takes a first
step towards a systematic analysis, by examining a set of
representative attempts to estimate public expenditure
on supply reduction interventions. It proposes a common
set of definitions, aiming to establish a common basis for
understanding this topic and facilitating comparability in three
main dimensions: time, policy and countries. Although it is
mainly confined to supply reduction expenditures, in order to
set the context, it describes the proportion that total drug-
related expenditure represents of national public spending and;
presents the balance between demand and supply reduction
spending for a number of European countries. Finally, with the
aim of facilitating and promoting future empirical expenditure
studies and of setting the ground for the development of
good practices, relevant data sources and methodologies
applied are listed and discussed and examples of sectorial
models of public spending are selectively provided.
PREMS 062717
ENG
The Council of Europe is the continent’s
leading human rights organisation.
It comprises 47 member states, 28 of which
www.coe.int
are members of the European Union.
All Council of Europe member states have signed up to
the European Convention on Human Rights, a treaty designed
to protect human rights, democracy and the rule of law.
The European Court of Human Rights oversees
the implementation of the Convention in the member states.
Document Outline